Friday 13 January 2012

Agnosticism / Atheism: What's Hot Now: Fallacies of Ambiguity: Amphiboly

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Fallacies of Ambiguity: Amphiboly
Jan 13th 2012, 11:07

Amphiboly

Fallacies of Ambiguity

• Fallacies of Ambiguity
• Equivocation
• No True Scotsman
• Illicit Observation
• Amphiboly
• Scope Fallacy
• Quantifier Fallacy
• Reification
• Accent
• Quoting out of Context
• Logical Fallacies
• Alphabetical Index
• Fallacies of Analogy
• Fallacies of Ambiguity
• Fallacies of Relevance
• Fallacies of Presumption
• Appeals to Emotion
• Ad Hominem Fallacies
• Appeals to Authority
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Fallacy Name:
Amphiboly

Alternative Names:
None

Category:
Fallacy of Ambiguity

Explanation:
This term amphiboly comes from the Greek ampho, which means "double" or "on both sides." This root, obviously enough, is closely related to the English world ambiguity. Instead of using the same word with multiple meanings, as with the Fallacy of Equivocation, the Fallacy of Amphiboly involves the use of sentences which can be interpreted in multiple ways with equal justification.

Examples and Discussion:
Often, the reason why this fallacy appears is poor or erroneous grammar, as with this example:

1. Last night I caught a prowler in my pyjamas.

What exactly is meant here - was the person in pyjamas when they caught the prowler, or was the prowler trying to steal the pyjamas? This becomes an issue (and a fallacy) if someone tries to base an argument on it:

2. Last night I caught a prowler in my pyjamas. Therefore, it is important to keep your pyjamas locked up securely where no one else can get them.

The problem with such an error is made clear when absurd conclusions are derived from the misunderstanding. But usually these errors aren't found in actual arguments - instead, they are found in propositions or statements, for example:

3. The anthropologists went to a remote area and took photographs of some native women, but they weren't developed. (from Marilyn vos Savant)

As you can see, it is unclear whether or not the modifying phrase "were not developed" is being used to refer to the photographs, or the native women.

This sort of problem is rare except for humorous effect, for example in these alleged "Church Bulletin Blunders" from an email which periodically gets sent around:

4. Don't let worry kill you off - let the Church help.

5. Eight new choir robes are currently needed, due to the addition of several new members and to the deterioration of some older ones.

6. For those of you who have children and don't know it, we have a nursery downstairs.

7. Barbara remains in the hospital and needs blood donors for more transfusions. She is also having trouble sleeping and requests tapes of Pastor Jack's sermons.

There aren't many instances where someone would deliberately introduce such ambiguity. The most common case of this, however, is when it is used so that different audiences can get out of it whatever they are looking for - a tactic not unusual in politics:

8. I am opposed to taxes which slow economic growth.

What exactly is this political candidate trying to say? Is she opposed to all taxes because they all slow economic growth? Or is she instead only to those taxes that have the effect of slowing economic growth? Some people will see one and some will see the other, depending upon their prejudices and agendas. Thus, we have a case of amphiboly here.

One other place where amphiboly appears is with oracles and psychic predictions. Oracles or oracular figures are often notorious for giving ambiguous predictions which are interpreted after events to have been true. The more vague and ambiguous a prediction is, the more likely it will be to come true, thus validating the power of the psychic or oracle.

Shakespeare used this more than once in his plays:

9. The Duke yet lives that Henry shall depose. (Henry VI, Part II; Act 1, Scene 4)

10. Be bloody, bold, and resolute; laugh to scorn the power of man, for none of woman born shall harm Macbeth. (Macbeth; Act 4, Scene 1)

Both of these predictions are ambiguous. In the first, it is unclear if there lives a duke whom Henry shall depose, or if there lives a duke who shall depose Henry. This ambiguity is caused by unclear grammar. The second example is the result of ambiguous terminology: Macbeth's enemy Macduff had been born by Caesarian section - "ripped untimely from his mother's womb" - and thus was not "of woman born" in the normal sense.

But such confusion is not limited to fiction: a common example used for this sort of ambiguity comes from Herodotus' histories concerning King Croesus of Lydia. Croesus feared the growing power of the Persian empire and asked many oracles what he should do and if he should march against King Cyrus. The Oracle of Delphi is reported to have answered:

11. ...that if he led an army against the Persians, he would destroy a great empire.

Considering this to be nice support, Croesus lead his armies into battle, only to lose. If you look closely at the prediction, however, you will notice that it is not made clear which empire would be destroyed, and Herodotus remarks that if Croesus had been smart, he would have sent back a question asking which empire the oracle meant.

Unfortunately, when given an ambiguous prediction, people tend to believe whatever interpretation is most favorable to what they want anyway. Pessimistic people will believe the most pessimistic meaning, while optimistic people will believe the most favorable meaning.

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